v Learning Theories And Approaches
Jean
Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not
only on understanding how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding
the nature of intelligence.
Piaget's stages are:
1.
Sensorimotor
stage: birth to 2 years
2.
Preoperational
stage: ages 2 to 7
3.
Concrete
operational stage: ages 7 to 11
4.
Formal
operational stage: ages 12 and up
Piaget believed that children take an active role in
the learning process, acting much like little scientists as they perform
experiments, make observations, and learn about the world. As kids interact
with the world around them, they continually add new knowledge, build upon
existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to accommodate new
information.
1.
The Sensorimotor Stage
Ages:
Birth to 2 Years
Major
Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Ø The
infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
Ø Children
learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking,
and listening
Ø Infants
learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
Ø They
are separate beings from the people and objects around them
Ø They
realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants
and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating
objects. A child's entire experience at the earliest period of this stage
occurs through basic reflexes, senses, and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through
a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids interact with their
environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world
works.
2. The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2
to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Ø Children
begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent
objects.
Ø Children
at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
Ø While
they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.
The foundations of language development may have been laid
during the previous stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of
the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development.3
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during
this stage of development, yet continue to think very concretely about the
world around them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still
struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other people. They also
often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7
to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
Ø During
this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
Ø They
begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Ø Their
thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Ø Children
begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their
thinking at this point in development, they become much more adept at using
logic.2 The egocentrism of the previous stage
begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other people
might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete
operational state, it can also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development
tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
4. The Formal Operational Stage
Ages:
12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
Ø At this
stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about
hypothetical problems
Ø Abstract
thought emerges
Ø Teens
begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
Ø Begin
to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in
logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract
ideas.3 At this point, people become capable of
seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more scientifically
about the world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations
is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage of cognitive development.
The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical
situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.
Important Concepts
To better understand some of the things that happen during
cognitive development, it is important first to examine a few of the important
ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.
The following are some of the factors that influence how
children learn and grow:
Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions
involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that
help us to interpret and understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of
knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen,
this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing
schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of
animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs,
a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs.
Suppose then that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in
this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include these
new observations.
Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already
existing schemas is known as assimilation. The process is somewhat subjective
because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in
with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling
it "dog" is a case of assimilating the animal into the child's dog
schema.
Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our
existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation.
Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new
information or new experiences.5 New
schemas may also be developed during this process.
Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance
between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism
Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of
cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying
previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new
knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children can move
from one stage of thought to the next.
v Triarchic Theory (Robert Sternberg)
The triarchic theory of
intelligence consists of three subtheories:
(i) The Componential Subtheory which outlines the structures and
mechanisms that underlie intelligent behavior categorized as metacognitive,
performance, or knowlege acquistion components ,
(ii) The Experiential Subtheory that proposes intelligent behavior be
interpreted along a continuum of experience from novel to highly familar
tasks/situations,
(iii) The Contextual Subtheory which specifies that intelligent behavior
is defined by the sociocultural context in which it takes place and involves
adaptation to the environment, selection of better environments, and shaping of
the present environment.
According to Sternberg, a
complete explanation of intelligence entails the interaction of these three
subtheories. The componential subtheory specifies the potential set of mental
processes that underlies behavior (i.e., how the behavior is generated) while
the contextual subtheory relates intelligence to the external world in terms of
what behaviors are intelligent and where. The experiential subtheory addresses
the relationship between the behavior in a given task/situation and the amount
of experience of the individual in that task/situation.
The componential subtheory is
the most developed aspect of the triarchic theory and is based upon Sternberg
(1977) which presents an information processing perspective for abilities. One
of the most fundamental components according to Sternberg’s research are the
metacognition or “executive” processes that control the strategies and tactics
used in intelligent behavior.
Application
The triarchic theory is a
general theory of human intelligence. Much of Sternberg’s early research
focused on analogies and syllogistic reasoning. Sternberg has used the theory
to explain exceptional intelligence (gifted and retardation) in children and
also to critique existing intelligence tests. Sternberg (1983) outlines the
implications of the theory for skill training. Later work examines topics such
as learning styles (Sternberg, 1997) and creativity (Sternberg, 1999).
Example
Sternberg (1985) describes the
results of various analogy experiments that support the triarchic theory. For
example, in a study that involved adults and children solving simple analogies,
he found that the youngest children solved the problems differently and
theorized that this was because they had not yet developed the ability to
discern higher order relations. In another study of analogies with children at
a Jewish school, he discovered a systematic bias towards selection of the first
two answers on the right and suggested that this could be accounted for by the
right-to-left reading pattern of Hebrew.
Principles
1.
Training of intellectual
performance must be socioculturally relevant to the individual
2.
A training program
should provide links between the training and real-world behavior.
3.
A training program
should provide explicit instruction in strategies for coping with novel
tasks/situations
4.
A training program
should provide expilicit instruction in both executive and non-executive
information processing and interactions between the two.
5.
Training programs should
actively encourage individuals to manifest their differences in strategies and
styles.
v Howard
Gardner Theory of multiple intelligences
The theory of multiple
intelligences differentiates human intelligence into specific 'modalities',
rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability.
Howard Gardner proposed this model in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory
of Multiple Intelligences. According to the theory, an intelligence 'modality'
must fulfill eight criteria
1. potential for
brain isolation by brain damage
2. place in
evolutionary history
3. presence of
core operations
4. susceptibility
to encoding (symbolic expression)
5. a distinct
developmental progression
6. the existence
of savants, prodigies and other exceptional people
7. support from
experimental psychology
8. support from
psychometric findings
Gardner proposed eight
abilities that he held to meet these criteria
1. musical-rhythmic,
2. visual-spatial,
3. verbal-linguistic,
4. logical-mathematical,
5. bodily-kinesthetic,
6. interpersonal,
7. intrapersonal,
8. naturalistic
In 2009, he suggested that
existential and moral intelligences may also be worthy of inclusion.
Although the distinction between
intelligences has been set out in great detail, Gardner opposes the idea of
labeling learners to a specific intelligence. Gardner maintains that his theory
should "empower learners", not restrict them to one modality of
learning. According to Gardner, an intelligence is "a biopsychological
potential to process information that can be activated in a cultural setting to
solve problems or create products that are of value in a culture. According to
a 2006 study, each of the domains proposed by Gardner involves a blend of the
general g factor, cognitive abilities other than g, and, in some cases,
non-cognitive abilities or personality characteristics.
1.
Musical-rhythmic and
harmonic
This area has to do with
sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical
intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute pitch, and are
able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. They have sensitivity
to rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre.
2.
Visual-spatial
This area deals with spatial
judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Spatial ability is
one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence.
3.
Verbal-linguistic
People with high
verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages.
They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing
words along with dates. Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities.This
type of intelligence is measured with the Verbal IQ in WAIS-IV.
4.
Logical-mathematical
This area has to do with logic,
abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical thinking. This also has to do
with having the capacity to understand the underlying principles of some kind
of causal system. Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and
to general intelligence (g factor).
5.
Bodily-kinesthetic
The core elements of the
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the
capacity to handle objects skillfully. Gardner elaborates to say that this also
includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action,
along with the ability to train responses.
People who have high
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should be generally good at physical activities
such as sports, dance, acting, and making things.
Gardner believes that careers
that suit those with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence include: athletes,
dancers, musicians, actors, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although
these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not
produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.
6.
Interpersonal
In theory, individuals who have
high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their sensitivity to
others' moods, feelings, temperaments, motivations, and their ability to
cooperate in order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How Are
Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra-
personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking
other people..."Those with high interpersonal intelligence communicate
effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or
followers. They often enjoy discussion and debate." Gardner has equated
this with emotional intelligence of Goleman.
Gardner believes that careers
that suit those with high interpersonal intelligence include sales persons,
politicians, managers, teachers, lecturers, counselors and social workers.
7.
Intrapersonal
This area has to do with
introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep
understanding of the self; what one's strengths or weaknesses are, what makes
one unique, being able to predict one's own reactions or emotions.
8.
Naturalistic
Not part of Gardner's original
seven, naturalistic intelligence was proposed by him in 1995. "If I were
to rewrite Frames of Mind today, I would probably add an eighth intelligence –
the intelligence of the naturalist. It seems to me that the individual who is
readily able to recognize flora and fauna, to make other consequential
distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively (in
hunting, in farming, in biological science) is exercising an important
intelligence and one that is not adequately encompassed in the current
list." This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to
one's natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as
animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types. This ability was clearly
of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it
continues to be central in such roles as botanist or chef.
This sort of ecological
receptiveness is deeply rooted in a "sensitive, ethical, and holistic
understanding" of the world and its complexities – including the role of
humanity within the greater ecosphere.
9.
Existential
Gardner did not want to commit
to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an "existential"
intelligence may be a useful construct, also proposed after the original 7 in
his 1999 book. The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further
explored by educational researchers.
v Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
Kohlberg identified three
levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and
post-conventional. Each level is associated with increasingly complex stages of
moral development.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional
level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled. Children accept
and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has
not yet adopted or internalized society’s conventions regarding what is right
or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external consequences that certain
actions may bring.
Stage
1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s
desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For example, an action is perceived
as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished; the worse the punishment
for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Stage
2: Instrumental Orientation
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s
in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by whatever the
individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning shows a
limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might
further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not
based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and
I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his
parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents
offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional
level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and societal
relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but
this is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive
relationships and societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is
somewhat rigid during these stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is
seldom questioned.
Stage
3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation
In stage 3, children want the
approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval. Emphasis is placed on
good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
Stage
4: Law-and-Order Orientation
In stage 4, the child blindly
accepts rules and convention because of their importance in maintaining a
functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and obeying
rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important.
Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval
exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone
would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most
active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Postconventional
Throughout the postconventional
level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of more abstract
principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and should
be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey
rules inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live
by their own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic
human rights as life, liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but
changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates that must be obeyed
without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their own moral
evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially
at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the
pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may
never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage
5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed
as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such perspectives should be
mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws are regarded as
social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for
the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage
five reasoning.
Stage
6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
In stage 6, moral reasoning is
based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical principles. Generally, the
chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas such as
equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded
in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to
disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles they want to follow,
and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this way, the
individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because he or she
wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is
legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage
six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently
operated at that level.
v Carl Roger’s Social -Constructivism
Experiential Learning (Carl Rogers)
Rogers distinguished two types
of learning: cognitive (meaningless) and experiential (significant). The former
corresponds to academic knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication
tables and the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learning about
engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is that
experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the learner. Rogers
lists these qualities of experiential learning: personal involvement,
self-initiated, evaluated by learner, and pervasive effects on learner.
To Rogers, experiential
learning is equivalent to personal change and growth. Rogers feels that all
human beings have a natural propensity to learn; the role of the teacher is to
facilitate such learning. This includes:
(1) setting a positive climate for learning,
(2) clarifying the purposes of the learner(s),
(3) organizing and making available learning resources,
(4) balancing intellectual and emotional components of
learning, and
(5) sharing feelings and thoughts with learners but not dominating.
According to Rogers, learning
is facilitated when:
(1) the student participates completely in the learning
process and has control over its nature and direction,
(2) it is primarily based upon direct confrontation with
practical, social, personal or research problems, and
(3) self-evaluation is the principal method of assessing
progress or success. Rogers also emphasizes the importance of learning to learn
and an openness to change.
Application
Roger’s theory of learning
originates from his views about psychotherapy and humanistic approach to
psychology. It applies primarily to adult learners and has influenced other
theories of adult learning such as Knowles and Cross. Combs (1982) examines the
significance of Roger’s work to education. Rogers & Frieberg (1994) discuss
applications of the experiential learning framework to the classroom.
Example
A person interested in becoming
rich might seek out books or classes on ecomomics, investment, great
financiers, banking, etc. Such an individual would perceive (and learn) any
information provided on this subject in a much different fashion than a person
who is assigned a reading or class.
Principles
1.
Significant learning takes
place when the subject matter is relevant to the personal interests of the
student
2.
Learning which is
threatening to the self (e.g., new attitudes or perspectives) are more easily
assimilated when external threats are at a minimum
3.
Learning proceeds faster
when the threat to the self is low
4.
Self-initiated learning
is the most lasting and pervasive.
v Erik Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erik Erikson was an ego
psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential theories of
development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than
psychosexual development. The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1
Stage 1 - Trust vs.
Mistrust
Stage 2 - Autonomy vs.
Shame and Doubt
Stage 3 - Initiative vs.
Guilt
Stage 4 - Industry vs.
Inferiority
Stage 5 - Identity vs.
Confusion
Stage 6 - Intimacy vs.
Isolation
Stage 7 - Generativity
vs. Stagnation
Stage 8 - Integrity vs.
Despair
Let's take a closer look at the
background and different stages that make up Erikson's psychosocial theory.
So what exactly did Erikson's
theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson
believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's
theory of psychosexual stages, Erikson's theory described the impact of social
experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how social
interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of
human beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory
builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of
development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in development.2 In Erikson's view, these conflicts
are centered on either developing a psychological quality or failing to develop
that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but
so is the potential for failure.
If people successfully deal
with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that
will serve them well for the rest of their lives. If they fail to deal
effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills
needed for a strong sense of self.
Erikson also believed that a
sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's
theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life. If the stage is
handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the
person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.
Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust
The first stage of Erikson's
theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and
is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly
dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the
child's caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly
dependent upon adult caregivers for everything that he or she needs to survive
including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. Everything. If a caregiver
fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or
she cannot trust or depend upon the adults in his or her life.
1.
If a child successfully
develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world.
2.
Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of
mistrust in the children under their care.
3.
Failure to develop trust
will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or
100 percent doubt. Erikson believed that successful development was all about
striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens, children
acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to experience tempered by
some wariness that danger may be present.
Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame
and Doubt
The second stage of Erikson's
theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is
focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
At this point in development,
children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are starting to
perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and
caregivers can help children develop a sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed
that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning
was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of
independence.
Other important events include
gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure
and confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and
self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and
shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act
with intention, within reason and limits.
Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt
The third stage of psychosocial
development takes place during the preschool years.
At this point in psychosocial
development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at
this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire
these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of
initiative.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a
willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose
emerges.
Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs.
Inferiority
The fourth psychosocial stage
takes place during the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.2
Through social interactions,
children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and
abilities. Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers
develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive
little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their
abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial
development leads to the strength known as competence, in which children
develop a belief their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.
Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs.
Confusion
The fifth psychosocial stage
takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an
essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue
to influence behavior and development for the rest of a person's life.
1.
During adolescence,
children explore their independence and develop a sense of self.
2.
Those who receive proper
encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from
this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and
control.
3.
Those who remain unsure
of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves
and the future.
When psychologists talk about
identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that
help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully
leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that
each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a particular
emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious
sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central
focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego
identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire
in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take
on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and
cohesive sense of self that endures through our lives. Our sense of personal
identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is
this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs.
Isolation
This stage covers the period of
early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital
that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who
are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.
Remember that each step builds
on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self do tend to have less
committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional isolation,
loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this
stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs.
Stagnation
During adulthood, we continue
to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
1.
Those who are successful
during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being
active in their home and community.
2.
Those who fail to attain
this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the world.
Care is the virtue achieved
when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments,
watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with
your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs.
Despair
The final psychosocial stage
occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
At this point in development,
people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy
with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't
do.
Those who are unsuccessful
during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience
many regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and
despair.
Those who feel proud of their
accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this
phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of
satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.
Psychosocial
Stages Summary Chart
Stage 1: Infancy (birth
to 18 months)
Basic Conflict: Trust
vs. Mistrust
Important Events:
Feeding
Outcome: During the first stage
of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust when caregivers
provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to mistrust.
Stage 2: Early Childhood
(2 to 3 years)
Basic Conflict: Autonomy
vs. Shame and Doubt
Important Events: Toilet
Training
Outcome: Children need to
develop a sense of personal control over physical skills and a sense of
independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping children
develop this sense of autonomy. Children who struggle and who are shamed for
their accidents may be left without a sense of personal control. Success during
this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of autonomy, failure
results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Stage 3: Preschool (3 to
5 years)
Basic Conflict:
Initiative vs. Guilt
Important Events:
Exploration
Outcome: Children need to begin asserting control and power over the
environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of purpose. Children who
try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of
guilt.
Stage 4: School Age (6
to 11 years)
Basic Conflict: Industry
vs. Inferiority
Important Events: School
Outcome: Children need to cope with new social and academic demands.
Success leads to a sense of competence, while failure results in feelings of
inferiority.
Stage 5: Adolescence (12
to 18 years)
Basic Conflict: Identity
vs. Role Confusion
Important Events: Social
Relationships
Outcome: Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal identity.
Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to
role confusion and a weak sense of self.
Stage 6: Young Adulthood
(19 to 40 years)
Basic Conflict: Intimacy
vs. Isolation
Important Events:
Relationships
Outcome: Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships
with other people. Success leads to strong relationships, while failure results
in loneliness and isolation.
Stage 7: Middle
Adulthood (40 to 65 years)
Basic Conflict:
Generativity vs. Stagnation
Important Events: Work
and Parenthood
Outcome: Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
them, often by having children or creating a positive change that benefits
other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while
failure results in shallow involvement in the world.
Stage 8: Maturity (65 to
death)
Basic Conflict: Ego
Integrity vs. Despair
Important Events:
Reflection on life
Outcome: Erikson's theory differed from many others because it
addressed development throughout the entire lifespan, including old age. Older
adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of fulfillment. Success at
this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair. At this stage, people reflect back on the events of
their lives and take stock. Those who look back on a life they feel was
well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a
sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel
fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel
they should have.
Erikson's theory also has its limitations and criticisms.
What kinds of experiences are necessary to successfully complete each stage?
How does a person move from one stage to the next? One major weakness of
psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for resolving conflicts and
moving from one stage to the next are not well described or developed. The
theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each
stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next
stage.
One of the strengths of psychosocial theory is that it
provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the entire
lifespan. It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and
the important influence that social relationships have on development.
Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas
about identity and have further identified different sub-stages of identity
formation. Some research also suggests that people who form strong personal
identities during adolescence are better capable of forming intimate
relationships during early adulthood.
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